Ψυχολογία
Γονεϊκή τυπολογία: Η θεωρία της Baumrind.
Το 1967, ύστερα από χρόνια μελετών, πειραμάτων και παρατηρήσεων, η αναπτυξιακή ψυχολόγος Diana Baumrind παρουσιάζει την θεωρία για τους γονεϊκούς τύπους (parenting styles). Με την ορολογία «Γονεϊκός Τύπος» αναφέρεται στις μεθόδους ανατροφής των παιδιών και πώς οι συμπεριφορές των γονιών επηρεάζουν την ανάπτυξη των παιδιών. Ο προσδιορισμός των τριών τύπων έγινε βάσει των διαστάσεων της απαιτητικότητας και της ανταπόκρισης.
Σύμφωνα λοιπόν με την Baumrind, υπάρχουν τρείς τύποι γονέων:
- Αυταρχικός γονέας «Authoritarian»
Οι αυταρχικοί γονείς έχουν υψηλές αξιώσεις από τα παιδιά τους. Στηρίζονται στην αρχή της υπακοής, δεν ενδιαφέρονται για το πώς νοιώθουν τα παιδία τους και τείνουν να είναι πολύ αυστηροί και καθόλου διαλλακτικοί. Επικοινωνούν ελάχιστα με τα παιδιά τους και απαιτούν πειθαρχία στους κανόνες που επιβάλουν. Δεν εκδηλώνουν στοργή και κατανόηση προς τα παιδία τους και δεν διστάζουν να ασκήσουν βία (σωματική ή λεκτική) όταν το παιδί δεν συμμορφώνεται ή παρεκκλίνει από τα όρια που του έχουν επιβάλει. Κατά μεγάλο ποσοστό, τα παιδία που μεγαλώνουν με αυταρχικούς γονείς, εκδηλώνουν πολλά προβλήματα συμπεριφοράς. Έλλειψη αυτοπεποίθησης, επιθετικές συμπεριφορές, αγχώδεις διαταραχές, είναι μερικές από τις δυσλειτουργίες που εμφανίζουν τα παιδιά ακόμα και κατά την ενηλικίωση τους.
- Ανεκτικός γονέας «Permissive»
Ο ανεκτικός γονέας τείνει να είναι στοργικός αλλά καθόλου σταθερός στον τρόπο που επικοινωνεί και ανταποκρίνεται στα παιδιά. Την μια είναι πολύ αυστηρός, την άλλη πολύ ανεκτικός, αδυνατεί να θέσει όρια και να προάγει καλές συνήθειες (βούρτσισμα δοντιών, ώρα ύπνου κα). Οι μεγάλες διακυμάνσεις στον τρόπο που ασκεί τα γονεϊκά του καθήκοντα, δημιουργούν μια αίσθηση σύγχυσης στα παιδιά. Έχει βρεθεί ότι η κατάθλιψη, η χαμηλή αυτοπεποίθηση, η μειωμένη ικανότητα επικοινωνίας και οι δυσκολίες στην ανάπτυξη κοινωνικών σχέσεων είναι χαρακτηριστικά των παιδιών που μεγαλώνουν με ανεκτικούς γονείς. Επιπλέον η εκδήλωση παχυσαρκίας και η χαμηλή σχολική απόδοση, σχετίζονται με αυτό του είδους τύπου γονέα.
- Υποστηρικτικός γονέας «Αuthoritative»
Τα κύρια χαρακτηριστικά του υποστηρικτικού γονέα είναι η στοργή και η κατανόηση. Ο υποστηρικτικός γονέας έχει υψηλές απαιτήσεις από το παιδί του αλλά φροντίζει πάντα να τις επικοινωνεί και να τις αιτιολογεί. Ενδιαφέρεται για το πως νοιώθει το παιδί του και θέτουν μαζί τα όρια κα τους κανόνες. Ενθαρρύνει την αυτονομία και ανεξαρτησία του παιδιού. Τα παιδιά αυτά έχουν εκδηλώνουν υψηλή ανθεκτικότητα και αυτοπεποίθηση, αναπτύσσουν εύκολα κοινωνικές σχέσεις και έχουν σιγουριά και θετική στάση στην ζωή τους.
25 Φεβρουαρίου 2021
Intrinsic and Extrinsic motivation in learning context
Although motivation is one of the most important factors on individual's behavior, little is known in this field and only in the last decades scientists are putting an effort to shed light on this significant element of human construct and performance. In accordance to self-determination theory SDT (Ryan & Deci 2000), there are two types of motivation, the intrinsic which is the driving force behind our internal sense of desire and the reflection of our inner willingness, and the extrinsic motivation which is driven from external factors and rooted outside the person. Both kinds of motivation are widely used in engaging and enhancing learning and educational procedure because they are significant parameters of students' performance and competence.
According to Suslu (2006) as extrinsic motivators are considered physical facilities and rewards provided in order to raise the motivational level for completing a particular task, and are "characterized by a means-end structure" and are implicated for "separable consequence" (Lens & Lacante, 2004). Several social-environmental factors that would engender extrinsic motivation are time limits, expected rewards, and evaluation, tests and competitions, surveillance etc. Deci and Ryan (2008) are distinguishing extrinsic motivation rewards into two types -which are not inherently associated with the action or achievement itself- those rewards are given by others, for instance, a student that does his homework because he aims to avoid parenting sanction (Hairul, Ahmadi & Pourhosein, 2012) and those given by themselves, for example, a student that does his homework so as to achieve a good grade (he is doing that for the sake of a reward and his instrumental value). Regarding Ryan & Deci (2000), if the student doesn't enjoy homework but it perceives it as important it can be assumed that this is a kind of autonomous motivation.
As intrinsic motivation is considered the behavior that arises from an individual's inner and he acts to satisfy his internal desires. According to Domenico and Ryan (2017) intrinsic motivation refers to an individual's impulsive inclination on curiosity and interest in developing and exercising their knowledge and skills in the absence of reward attainment. In other words, it's a behavior that is driven by internal rewards just because we enjoy being engaged in an activity or it triggers our curiosity, or we want to explore or learn (Coon & Mitterer 2010). Self-determination theory considers that intrinsic motivation is the primary factor of autonomous motivation. The key components of intrinsic motivation are the options of "choice" and "curiosity". Choice is the mean of expressing individual's free will and self-determination. Quite a few studies have mentioned the positive correlation of choice with intrinsic motivation in children and adults (Patall, Cooper, & Robinson, 2008). Curiosity is defined as one's desire to discover something or gaining knowledge on new things (Kucirkova, Littleton & Cremin 2016), young children exude curiosity as means of exploring, understanding, and interacting with the environment. Thought, the desire to learn tends to weaken as children growing up (Wery & Thomson, 2013).
Motivation is considered to be a key predictor for reading skills in children (Schiefele, Schaffner, Moller & Wigfield, 2012). Students who are intrinsically motivated to a difficult task accomplishment and predicted to be challenged or excited by this task are more likely to maintain learned concepts and enhance their confidence when dealing with unfamiliar tasks (Ormrod, 2008). On the other hand, extrinsically motivated students being encouraged and prodded by teachers in undertaking tasks -usually for the sake of attaining a reward (Ormrod, 2008)- acknowledge these particular tasks as obligations and as a means to an end.
Given that people aren't intrinsically motivated by all the circumstances (Hennessey, 2000) either the students are motivated under all learning conditions (Wery & Thomson, 2013). Extrinsic reinforcement such as evaluation by others, threats, or rewards which have been used systematically in the last decades through the learning process, intending to modify student's behavior are now under question because they predicted to undermine performance and intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Cooper, 2007). Learning has to do with competence demonstration, focus on performance, and the acknowledgment of evaluation by others (Dishon-Berkovits, 2014). To force learner's motivation -especially those who struggling and appear keened- it is essential to understand their reluctance and then moving them forward towards independence and enhance their interest in learning (Wery & Thomson, 2013).
Both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations are highly correlated with the learning process, some scientists argue that emphasizing external rewards, grades, or scholarships par example, would result in weakening learner's intrinsic motivation, others support that extrinsic motivation increase intrinsic motivation and contribute on enhancing learner's performance in class (Bray & McClaskey, 2016). According to Plotnik and Kouyoumdjian (2011) unexpected external rewards and rewards given as praise for achieving small tasks are inducing intrinsic motivation, although praise develops intrinsic motivation. Merrill, Frankenfeld, Mink, and Freeborne (2015) arguing that external rewards could motivate individuals to attain knowledge or developing new skills and help in attracting interest in something when primarily was no interest, additionally, extrinsic rewards can be considered as a kind of feedback in which a person achieved a certain standard or made aware of its performance. Regarding Ávila et al., (2012) positive feedback is predicted to develop perceived competence, enhance satisfaction and learning impetus (Wulf, Lewthwaite, & Hooyman, 2013), minoring hesitations and anxiety about performance and capacity (Wulf et al., 2012).
Quite a few studies have highlighted the key role of intrinsic motivation in teaching and learning (Froiland & Worrell, 2016; Wu & Fan, 2017), although intrinsic motivation has been associated with positive outcomes such as learning pleasure, better engagement, and conceptual in learning activities, assiduousness in the study performance and long-term educational achievements (Froiland & Oros, 2014) antithetically, extrinsic motivation is characterized by a focus on performance, competency expressions (Dishon-Berkovits, 2014) and failure avoidance (Kover & Worrell, 2010) related studies on extrinsic motivation have shown that external factors as controlling language, deadlines, surveillance and rewards as well, are interacting negatively by destabilizing persons' inherent interest performing demonstrating less persistence at activities. (Deci, 2004)
According to Froiland (2013), parents very often act in a controlling way by stressing and forcing their children to be successful. Parents' inner desire and expectations for their children lead to negative outcomes such as decreasing autonomous motivation and disheartening children's positive emotional development. On the contrary, parents that adopt autonomy-supportive techniques led to increasing children's wellbeing and creativity, developing positive emotions and academic competence, and impede or diminish stress and depressive symptoms (Froiland, 2013b). With the intention of supporting his states, Froiland piloted numerous of studies. In a qualitative research, he examined fifteen sets of parent-child inquest of the role of parenting in promoting autonomy support during homework and learning activities, the study has revealed substantial positive relations of autonomy-supportive style in homeworking and learning in general (Froiland, 2015). As Chaplin (2009) has mentioned, children are considering their parents as the main providers of their happiness and cheerfulness.
Last decades the societies hatching an educational system that relies on external control strategies to foster learning, thus, enhancing learning motivation based on rewards, directives, evaluation, and pressure learning is being reflected as an unpleasant task or chore rather than inwards values (Ryan & Deci, 2010). Regarding Hennessey (2000) children tend to respond negatively to a task as "work'" when their behavior is constraints imposed, and in a positive way when engaging in a task as "play" where no proscriptions occur. Ryan and Deci, (2013) pointing out that when children are left with no pressure following their interests instead, they express their inquisitive and inherently nature and engaged in learning development fulfill with interest and joyfulness. Children and thus students are learning from their experiences, both parents and teachers should find out and trigger the motivational factors so as to encourage and increase their willingness to learn.
Given the fact that children learn from playing and exploring, teachers should adopt alternatives teaching approaches to facilitate their students' performance (Wery & Thomson, 2013) thus, teachers' main ambition has to be the development of a challenging and supportive learning environment (Assor & Kaplan, 2001). They have to encourage learning by creating a positive class climate and interact with students (Grolnick & Ryan, 1990) performing enthusiasm and responding positively in students questions (Wery & Thomson, 2013), promote task enjoyment (Hutchinson et al., 2008), endorsing of actively participation in teamwork aid to engage students more in the learning procedure (Paechter et al., 2010), allowing independence by offering choices to students and setting goals (Black & Deci, 2000), involving students in learning by providing adjusting opportunities, evaluating the tasks and diminish competition, praising and encourage students to develop their intrinsic motivation on a task, linking and inspiring performance assessments with the real-life, using simply paradigms from every day appliances (Wery & Thomson, 2013) and enhance the usage of positive words associated with intrinsic incentives such as 'involved', 'autonomous', 'volunteering', 'enjoying' which are increasing motivation (Lévesque & Pelletier, 2003).
In conclusion to the above, learning and motivational structural components of human behaviors. Motivation refers to an individual's intrinsic or extrinsic tendency that influences its behavior either positively either negatively and according to Johns (1996), is the persistent effort for goal achievement, consequently learning motivation is the appliance of persisting effort to learning (Ryan & Deci, 2000b). Should a behavior is mostly extrinsic motivated and the reward does not come, is more likely the person to get discouraged and give up the effort, oppositely if the behavior is mainly intrinsically driven probably the willpower to excel will weaken.
The learning intentions of students are related to their motivational level (Law et al., 2010), thus the teacher is a key figure who can influence and motivate student's attitudes on learning. A study has shown that when in a class context is given opportunities to students to engage in reading for pleasure systematically and for a long period, theirs' intrinsic motivation to read has increased (Cremin et al., 2014) because teachers are able to shape the class culture their implementations and learning practices are vital (Chiew & Poh, 2015). Teachers should trust their students and believe they can learn, they have to create and facilitate a positive and supporting environment and providing equal opportunities to students to participate in learning (Wery & Thomson, 2013). On the other hand, parental intervention in endorsing children's positive emotions and motivational factors are decisive. The parent needs to adopt the autonomy-supportive model which involves empathetic listening, educational games, supporting and encouraging children's learning efforts on homework discarding authoritarian and controlling behaviors (Froiland, 2011). Since developing children's autonomous motivation would result in generalizing in various fields of their life (Froiland, 2013).
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